Inflammatory Type Focal Cerebral Arteriopathy of the Posterior Circulation in Children: A Comparative Cohort Study.

BACKGROUND: Inflammatory type focal cerebral arteriopathy (FCA-i) in the anterior circulation (AC) is well characterized, and the focal cerebral arteriopathy severity score (FCASS) reflects the severity of the disease. We identified cases of FCA-i in the posterior circulation (PC) and adapted the FCASS to describe these cases. METHODS: In this comparative cohort study, patients from the Swiss NeuroPaediatric Stroke Registry with ischemic stroke due to FCA-i between January 2000 and December 2018 were analyzed. A comparison between PC and AC cases regarding pediatric National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score and pediatric stroke outcome measure and FCASS was performed. We estimated infarct size by the modified pediatric Alberta Stroke Program Early Computed Tomography Score in children with AC stroke and the adapted Bernese posterior diffusion-weighted imaging score in the PC. RESULTS: Thirty-five children with a median age of 6.3 (interquartile range, 2.7-8.2 [95% CI, 0.9-15.6]; 20 male; 57.1%) years with FCA-i were identified. The total incidence rate was 0.15/100 000/year (95% CI, 0.11-0.21). Six had PC-FCA-i. Time to final FCASS was longer in the PC compared with AC; the evolution of FCASS did not differ. Initial pediatric National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score was higher in children with FCA-i in the PC with a median of 10.0 (interquartile range, 5.75-21.0) compared with 4.5 (interquartile range, 2.0-8.0) in those with AC-FCA-i. Different from the anterior cases, PC infarct volume did not correlate with higher discharge, maximum, or final FCASS scores (Pearson correlation coefficient [r], 0.25, 0.35, and 0.54). CONCLUSIONS: FCA-i also affects the PC. These cases should be included in future investigations into FCA-i. Although it did not correlate with clinical outcomes in our cohort, the modified FCASS may well serve as a marker for the evolution of the arteriopathy in posterior FCA-i.

Development of Collateral Vessels after Anterior Circulation Large Vessel Occlusion in Pediatric Arterial Ischemic Stroke Relates to Stroke Etiology: A Longitudinal Study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: The characteristics of large vessel occlusion (LVO) in the acute phase of pediatric arterial ischemic stroke and their natural history according to stroke etiology are poorly explored. This studied aimed at describing the prevalence and the radiological evolution of LVO in pediatric AIS. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This single-center retrospective study included consecutive non-neonate children with acute arterial ischemic stroke, intracranial proximal LVO in the anterior circulation (MCA, anterior cerebral artery, and/or ICA), and clinical and imaging follow-up for at least 18 months, during a 9-year period. RESULTS: Intracranial LVO was observed in 24.8% of patients with anterior circulation arterial ischemic stroke and adequate follow-up (n = 26/105), with a median age of 4.2 years (IQR 0.8-9), sex ratio 1.16. The main stroke etiology associated with LVO was unilateral focal cerebral arteriopathy (n = 12, 46%). During follow-up, a specific pattern of unilateral poststroke anastomotic bridge was observed in 8/26 patients, with the poststroke development of nonperforating collaterals forming a bridge in bypass of the LVO site with visible distal flow, within a median delay of 11 months. The development of unilateral poststroke anastomotic bridge was only observed in patients with unilateral focal cerebral arteriopathy. No patient with this pattern experienced stroke recurrence or further progressive vascular modifications. CONCLUSIONS: After stroke, the development of unilateral poststroke anastomotic bridge is specifically observed in children with focal cerebral arteriopathy, appearing in the first year after stroke. This clinical-radiologic pattern was not associated with stroke recurrence or arterial worsening, differentiating it from progressive intracranial arteriopathy, such as Moyamoya angiopathy.

Advances in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Pediatric Arterial Ischemic Stroke.

Though rare, stroke in infants and children is an important cause of mortality and chronic morbidity in the pediatric population. Neuroimaging advances and implementation of pediatric stroke care protocols have led to the ability to rapidly diagnose stroke and in many cases determine the stroke etiology. Though data on efficacy of hyperacute therapies, such as intravenous thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy, in pediatric stroke are limited, feasibility and safety data are mounting and support careful consideration of these treatments for childhood stroke. Recent therapeutic advances allow for targeted stroke prevention efforts in high-risk conditions, such as moyamoya, sickle cell disease, cardiac disease, and genetic disorders. Despite these exciting advances, important knowledge gaps persist, including optimal dosing and type of thrombolytic agents, inclusion criteria for mechanical thrombectomy, the role of immunomodulatory therapies for focal cerebral arteriopathy, optimal long-term antithrombotic strategies, the role of patent foramen ovale closure in pediatric stroke, and optimal rehabilitation strategies after stroke of the developing brain.

Characterization of Neuropsychological Outcomes in a Cohort of Pediatric Patients with Moyamoya Arteriopathy.

INTRODUCTION: Moyamoya arteriopathy is a severe, progressive cerebral arteriopathy that places affected children at high risk for stroke. Moyamoya has been associated with a range of neuropsychological deficits in adults, but data on many cognitive domains remain limited in the pediatric population and little is known about the neuropsychological profile of children with syndromic moyamoya. METHODS: This is a single-center, retrospective cohort study of children with moyamoya arteriopathy followed at our center who underwent neuropsychological testing between 2003 and 2021. Test scores were extracted from neuropsychological reports. Medical records were reviewed with attention to individual neuropsychological test results, medical comorbidities, presence of infarct(s) on neuroimaging, and history of clinical ischemic stroke. RESULTS: Of the 83 children with moyamoya followed at our center between 2003 and 2021, 13 had completed neuropsychological testing across multiple cognitive domains. Compared to age-based normative data, children in this sample had lower scores in overall intelligence (p = 0.003), global executive functioning (p = 0.005), and overall adaptive functioning (p = 0.015). There was no significant difference in overall intelligence between children with (n = 6) versus without (n = 7) a history of clinical stroke (p = 0.368), though children with any radiographic infarct scored lower in this domain (p = 0.032). CONCLUSION: In our cohort, children with moyamoya demonstrated impaired intelligence and executive functioning, even in the absence of clinical stroke. Neuropsychological evaluation should be considered standard of care for all children with moyamoya, even those without a history of clinical stroke.

Cerebral Arteriopathies of Childhood - Current Approaches.

Up to more than half of previously healthy children presenting with their first arterial ischemic stroke have a cerebral arteriopathy. Cerebral arteriopathies during childhood can be congenital, reflecting abnormal vessel development, or acquired when caused by disruption of vascular homeostasis. Distinguishing different types of cerebral arteriopathies in children can be challenging but of great clinical value as they may dictate different disease and treatment courses, and clinical and radiologic outcomes. Furthermore, children with stroke due to a specific arteriopathy exhibit distinctive features when compared to those with stroke due to other causes or a different type of arteriopathy. These features become crucial in the management of pediatric stroke by choosing appropriate diagnostic and treatment strategies. The objective of this article is to provide the reader with a comprehensive up-to-date review of the classification, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and outcome of cerebral arteriopathies in children.

Clinical improvement of a toddler with COVID-19 focal cerebral arteriopathy possibly due to intra-arterial nimodipine.

Pediatric stroke is considered an infrequent complication of COVID-19. Focal cerebral arteriopathy (FCA) is one of the most common causes of arterial ischemic stroke in a previously healthy child. The present report describes a toddler with FCA most likely induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection who showed significant clinical improvement that may be related to injection of intra-arterial nimodipine. To our knowledge, this is the first reported use of nimodipine in this setting.

Characteristics of Moyamoya Syndrome in Pediatric Patients With Neurofibromatosis Type 1.

BACKGROUND: Moyamoya syndrome (MMS) is a progressive cerebral arteriopathy with increased incidence in children with neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1). Despite the potential for significant neurological morbidity including stroke, little is known about the natural history, and no guidelines exist for screening and management of NF1-associated MMS. METHODS: We identified 152 literature cases of children aged ≤18 years with NF1-associated MMS. A meta-analysis was performed evaluating clinical and neuroimaging findings and patient outcomes. Data from 19 patients with NF1-associated MMS from our center treated from January 1995 to July 2020 were abstracted via chart review and similarly analyzed for clinical and neuroimaging features. RESULTS: Meta-analysis of literature cases showed a median age of MMS diagnosis of 6 years (interquartile range 3 to 10.8 years). Optic pathway gliomas were more common in patients with MMS (42%) compared with historical prevalence. Stroke or transient ischemic attack (TIA) was present at diagnosis in 46%. TIA and stroke were more common in patients with bilateral versus unilateral MMS (62% vs 34%, P = 0.001) and in children aged <4 years versus those aged ≥4 years (61% vs 40%, P = 0.02). Compared with the literature cases, our cohort was more frequently asymptomatic (42% vs 25%) and less likely to present with TIA or stroke (32% vs 46%) at diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggest there is an aggressive form of MMS in children with NF1 <4 years of age. Therefore, early screening should be considered to facilitate early detection and treatment of cerebral arteriopathy.

High-resolution MR vessel wall imaging in determining the stroke aetiology and risk stratification in isolated middle cerebral artery disease.

PURPOSE: High-resolution MR vessel wall imaging (HRVWI) can characterise vessel wall pathology affecting intracranial circulation and helps in differentiating intracranial vasculopathies. The aim was to differentiate intracranial pathologies involving middle cerebral artery (MCA) in patients with ischemic stroke and characterise the high-risk plaques in intracranial atherosclerotic disease (ICAD) using HRVWI. METHODS: Patients with ischemic stroke with isolated MCA disease with ≥ 50% luminal narrowing by vascular imaging were enrolled within 2 weeks of onset and underwent high-resolution (3 T) intracranial vessel wall imaging (VWI). The pattern of vessel wall thickening, high signal on T1-weighted images, juxtaluminal hyperintensity, pattern and grade of enhancement were studied. The TOAST classification before and after HRVWI and the correlation of the recurrence of ischemic events at 3 months with imaging characteristics were analysed. RESULTS: Of the 36 patients, the mean age was 49.53 ± 15.61 years. After luminal imaging, by TOAST classification, 12 of 36 patients had stroke of undetermined aetiology. After vessel wall imaging, lesions in MCA were analysed. Of them, 23 patients had ICAD, 8 had vasculitis, and 2 had partially occlusive thrombus in MCA. The ability of HRVWI to bring a change in diagnosis was significant (p = 0.031). Of the 23 patients with ICAD, 12 patients had recurrent strokes within 3 months. The presence of grade 2 contrast enhancement (p = 0.02) and type 2 wall thickening (p = 0.03) showed a statistically significant association with recurrent ischemic events. CONCLUSION: High-resolution MRVWI can help in identifying the aetiology of stroke. The HRVWI characteristics in ICAD can help in risk stratification.

Effects of Pemafibrate in Patients with Stroke and Hypertriglyceridemia: Baseline Cerebral Artery Diseases and 3-Month Laboratory Outcomes.

AIMS: The role of hypertriglyceridemia in stroke is poorly understood. The Pemafibrate for Prevention of Atherosclerotic Diseases in Stroke (PPAR Stroke) study was designed to assess the effects of a novel selective peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha modulator, pemafibrate, on vascular outcomes in stroke patients with hypertriglyceridemia. METHODS: This was a prospective single-arm study including 74 patients (mean age, 64.1 years; male 75.7%) with stroke and hypertriglyceridemia (defined as fasting serum triglycerides levels of ≥ 150 mg/dL) who were treated with pemafibrate at 0.2 mg or 0.1 mg/day. The present report assessed the association of hypertriglyceridemia with cerebral large and small vessel diseases at baseline and changes in laboratory parameters after a three-month pemafibrate therapy. RESULTS: Patients with triglycerides levels of ≥ 227 mg/dL (higher than the median) more often presented with intracranial artery atherosclerotic stenosis than those with triglycerides levels of 150-227 mg/dL (44.4% vs. 21.6%, p=0.037). On the other hand, no differences were found in the prevalence of extracranial artery atherosclerosis and cerebral small vessel diseases. Mean triglycerides levels were significantly reduced from 285 mg/dL at baseline to 175 mg/dL at 3 months (p＜0.001). High-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels increased from 48 mg/dL to 53 mg/dL (p＜0.001). In addition, significant reductions in alanine aminotransferase, γ-glutamyl transpeptidase, and interleukin-6 levels were observed (p＜0.001, p=0.002, and p=0.044, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Higher triglycerides levels are associated with intracranial artery atherosclerosis. Pemafibrate showed pleiotropic effects not only in ameliorating atherogenic dyslipidemia but also in the reduction of the levels of inflammatory markers and hepatobiliary enzymes.

Arterial Ischemic Stroke-Peculiarities of Clinical Presentation and Risk Factors in Indian Children.

There are not enough recent studies on arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) in Indian children. We retrospectively reviewed data on 95 children (69 boys), aged 3 months to 17 years, with AIS. Focal signs were noted in 84 (88%) with hemiparesis in 72 (76%). Diffuse signs were present in 33 (35%) with fever in 22 (23%), altered mental status in 20 (21%), and headache in 12 (13%). Seizures occurred in 29 (31%) children. Arteriopathy was observed in 57 (60%) children with mineralizing lenticulostriate vasculopathy (mLSV) in 22 (23%) being the most common, followed by moyamoya in 14 (15%), arterial dissection in 9 (10%), and focal cerebral arteriopathy (FCA) in 8 (8%). Preceding head/neck trauma was present in 27 (28%) children: 23 had minor head trauma (MHT), 3 neck trauma, and 1 unspecified. Other common risk factors (RFs) were iron deficiency in 10 children, homocysteinemia in 8 children, and tuberculous meningitis in 5 children. Complete or nearly complete recovery occurred in 42 (44%). Nine children developed epilepsy and five cognitive and language disability. Stroke recurrences occurred in nine children. Overall, arteriopathies accounted for majority of the cases of childhood AIS in our study with mLSV and moyamoya being the most frequent. Compared with data from Western countries, FCAs, postvaricella arteriopathy, and arterial dissections were less common. Of the nonarteriopathic RFs, MHT, iron deficiency, homocysteinemia, and neuroinfections were most frequent in our cohort in contrast to cardioembolic diseases and inherited procoagulant conditions, which are common in developed countries.

To what degree is late life cognitive decline driven by age-related neuropathologies?

The ageing brain is vulnerable to a wide array of neuropathologies. Prior work estimated that the three most studied of these, Alzheimer's disease, infarcts, and Lewy bodies, account for ∼40% of the variation in late life cognitive decline. However, that estimate did not incorporate many other diseases that are now recognized as potent drivers of cognitive decline [e.g. limbic predominant age-related TDP-43 encephalopathy (LATE-NC), hippocampal sclerosis, other cerebrovascular conditions]. We examined the degree to which person-specific cognitive decline in old age is driven by a wide array of neuropathologies. Deceased participants (n = 1164) from two longitudinal clinical-pathological studies, the Rush Memory and Aging Project and Religious Orders Study, completed up to 24 annual evaluations including 17 cognitive performance tests and underwent brain autopsy. Neuropathological examinations provided 11 pathological indices, including markers of Alzheimer's disease, non- Alzheimer's disease neurodegenerative diseases (i.e. LATE-NC, hippocampal sclerosis, Lewy bodies), and cerebrovascular conditions (i.e. macroscopic infarcts, microinfarcts, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, atherosclerosis, and arteriolosclerosis). Mixed effects models examined the linear relation of pathological indices with global cognitive decline, and random change point models examined the relation of the pathological indices with the onset of terminal decline and rates of preterminal and terminal decline. Cognition declined an average of about 0.10 unit per year (estimate = -0.101, SE = 0.003, P < 0.001) with considerable heterogeneity in rates of decline (variance estimate for the person-specific slope of decline was 0.0094, P < 0.001). When considered separately, 10 of 11 pathological indices were associated with faster decline and accounted for between 2% and 34% of the variation in decline, respectively. When considered simultaneously, the 11 pathological indices together accounted for 43% of the variation in decline; Alzheimer's disease-related indices accounted for 30-36% of the variation, non-Alzheimer's disease neurodegenerative indices 4-10%, and cerebrovascular indices 3-8%. Finally, the 11 pathological indices combined accounted for less than a third of the variation in the onset of terminal decline (28%) and rates of preterminal (32%) and terminal decline (19%). Although age-related neuropathologies account for a large proportion of the variation in late life cognitive decline, considerable variation remains unexplained even after considering a wide array of neuropathologies. These findings highlight the complexity of cognitive ageing and have important implications for the ongoing effort to develop effective therapeutics and identify novel treatment targets.

Occlusive Disease and Upright Activity in Acute Ischemic Stroke.

The impact of out-of-bed upright activity on outcomes in ischemic stroke patients with severe extra- and intracranial stenosis or occlusion is unknown. Using ultrasound findings from a cohort recruited to A Very Early Rehabilitation Trial (AVERT) which compared higher dose very early mobilisation (VEM) to usual care (UC), we aimed to explore the association between occlusive disease and 3-month outcomes and occlusive disease-by-mobilisation treatment interactions. Participants with ischemic stroke, with carotid and transcranial Doppler ultrasounds performed ≤1 week after admission, were included in this single centre substudy in Melbourne, Australia. Reports were retrospectively reviewed to determine the degree of stenosis or presence of occlusion in the relevant arterial territory. Stenosis ≥70% extracranial or ≥50% intracranial were classified as severe or occlusion. Overall, 19% (n = 36/191) had occlusive disease in the affected circulation. About 40% (n = 14/36) with occlusive disease and 51% (n = 79/155) without had a 3-month favourable outcome (mRS 0-2) (adjusted OR0.53, CI0.17-1.67). Fourteen percent (n = 5) with occlusive disease and 4% (n = 6) without died by 3 months (adjusted OR2.52, CI0.6-10.7). Fifty percent (n = 11/22) of UC (adjusted OR0.86, CI0.23-3.2) and 21% (n = 3/14) of VEM participants (adjusted OR0.16, CI0.01-2.7) with occlusive disease had a favourable outcome. Almost 30% (n = 4) VEM participants with occlusive disease died (adjusted OR3.99, CI0.69-22.9) compared to 5% (n = 1) UC participants with occlusive disease (adjusted OR0.45, CI0.02-8.6), however numbers were small. No stenosis-by-treatment interactions were found. High quality prospective studies are needed to help guide decision making about when patients with occlusive disease should commence upright activity in acute stroke.

Late-onset cerebral arteriopathy in a patient with incontinentia pigmenti.

BACKGROUND: Incontinentia pigmenti (IP) is an X-linked neurocutaneous disorder that can present with cerebral arteriopathy during early infancy. However, no previous reports have demonstrated arteriopathic manifestations during postinfantile childhood in patients with IP. PATIENT DESCRIPTION: We describe a case of IP in a 2-year-old girl who developed encephalopathic manifestations associated with influenza A infection. She presented diffuse magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities involving the cortices, subcortical white matter, corpus callosum, basal ganglia, and thalami, resembling the findings in early infantile cases reported in the previous literatures. Magnetic resonance angiography demonstrated attenuation of the cerebral arteries. Proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines were upregulated in the cerebrospinal fluid. Left hemiplegia remained following the remission of the arteriopathic manifestations. Genetic analyses revealed a novel type of mutation in the IKBKG gene. CONCLUSION: Our findings indicate that patients with IP can develop destructive cerebral arteriopathy even after early infancy. The similarities in magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities between our patient and the previously reported infantile patients may be explained by the underlying immunologic pathophysiology of IP.

Validation of the focal cerebral arteriopathy severity score (FCASS) in a Swiss cohort: Correlation with infarct volume and outcome.

BACKGROUND: Focal cerebral arteriopathy (FCA), a major cause of childhood arterial ischemic stroke (AIS), can progress and lead to increased infarct size and/or recurrent stroke. Evaluating treatment options depends on the ability to quantify reliably the degree of stenosis in FCA. AIMS: We validated the recently introduced FCA severity score (FCASS) in an independent cohort from the Swiss Neuro-Paediatric Stroke Registry (SNPSR). MATERIALS AND METHODS: We included children with FCA who had MR or CT angiography and a Pediatric Stroke Outcome Measure (PSOM) at 6-months and 2-years post-stroke. A paediatric neuroradiologist applied the FCASS and the modified pediatric Alberta Stroke Program Early Computed Tomography Score (ASPECTS), a measure of infarct volume, to all available imaging. Two senior paediatric stroke neurologists and a neuroradiology fellow independently assigned FCASS scores to test interrater reliability. Pairwise correlations between FCASS, pedASPECTS, and PSOM were examined. RESULTS: Thirty-two children [median (IQR) age = 5.9 (1.8, 9.6), 19 males] were included. The median maximum FCASS score at any time was 9 (IQR 6, 12; range 3, 16). Larger infarct volume scores correlated with both higher maximum FCASS scores and worse post-stroke outcomes, although we found no direct correlation between FCASS and outcomes. Stroke neurologists tended to assign lower FCASS scores than the neuroradiologist, but interrater reliability was predominantly good. CONCLUSIONS: In this independent validation cohort, higher maximum FCASS correlated with greater infarct volume scores that also correlated with worse neurological outcomes. Scoring by non-imaging specialists seems to be valuable, although differences are present.

Spectrum of cerebral arteriopathies in children with arterial ischemic stroke.

OBJECTIVE: To determine that children with arterial ischemic stroke (AIS) due to an identifiable arteriopathy are distinct from those without arteriopathy and that each arteriopathy subtype has unique and recognizable clinical features. METHODS: We report a large, observational, multicenter cohort of children with AIS, age 1 month to 18 years, enrolled in the International Pediatric Stroke Study from 2003 to 2014. Clinical and demographic differences were compared by use of the Fisher exact test, with linear step-up permutation min-p adjustment for multiple comparisons. Exploratory analyses were conducted to evaluate differences between cases of AIS with and without arteriopathy and between arteriopathy subtypes. RESULTS: Of 2,127 children with AIS, 725 (34%) had arteriopathy (median age 7.45 years). Arteriopathy subtypes included dissection (27%), moyamoya (24.5%), focal cerebral arteriopathy-inflammatory subtype (FCA-i; 15%), diffuse cerebral vasculitis (15%), and nonspecific arteriopathy (18.5%). Children with arteriopathic AIS were more likely to present between 6 and 9 years of age (odds ratio [OR] 1.93, p = 0.029) with headache (OR 1.55, p = 0.023), multiple infarctions (OR 2.05, p < 0.001), sickle cell anemia (OR 2.9, p = 0.007), and head/neck trauma (OR 1.93, p = 0.018). Antithrombotic use and stroke recurrence were higher in children with arteriopathy. Among arteriopathy subtypes, dissection was associated with male sex, older age, headache, and anticoagulant use; FCA-i was associated with hemiparesis and single infarcts; moyamoya was associated with seizures and recurrent strokes; and vasculitis was associated with bilateral infarctions. CONCLUSION: Specific clinical profiles are associated with cerebral arteriopathies in children with AIS. These observations may be helpful indicators in guiding early diagnosis and defining subgroups who may benefit most from future therapeutic trials.

Focal Cerebral Arteriopathy in Young Adult Patients With Stroke.

Background and Purpose- Focal cerebral arteriopathy is monophasic inflammatory stenosis of the distal internal carotid artery or the proximal segment of the middle cerebral artery. It is one of the most common causes of acute arterial ischemic stroke in young children but is a less familiar entity for adult neurologists. Methods- We retrospectively reviewed stroke service radiology records at a tertiary referral center from January 2013 to December 2014. Focal cerebral arteriopathy was defined as nonprogressive unifocal and unilateral stenosis/irregularity of the distal internal carotid artery or its proximal branches. Only patients aged 16 to 55 years with stroke were included. Results- There were 5 cases of focal cerebral arteriopathy: 2 males and 3 females. Three cases were from the cohort of 123 acute presentations of young stroke, and 2 cases were outpatient referrals. The mean age (range) was 43 (32-55) years. The majority presented with recurrent transient ischemic attacks/minor strokes within a single vascular territory over days to weeks. All cases had characteristic radiological features. Interval imaging demonstrated resolution in 1 case and improvement in 3 cases. Functional outcome was excellent with discharge modified Rankin Scale score ranging from 0 to 1. Recurrence occurred in 1 case. Conclusions- Focal cerebral arteriopathy is a rare cause of arterial ischemic stroke in young adults. Follow-up intracranial imaging is essential to differentiate from progressive arteriopathies. Evidence-based treatment warrants further investigation. Prognosis is favorable.

Symptomatic and asymptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenosis: 3 years' prospective study.

BACKGROUND: Intracranial stenoses can cause TIA/ischaemic stroke. The purpose of this study was to assess vascular risk factors, clinical and imaging findings and outcome in Caucasians with intracranial stenosis under best prevention management. METHODS: In this prospective observational study (from 05/2012, to last follow-up 06/2017) we compared vascular risk factors, imaging findings and long-term outcome in Swiss patients with symptomatic versus asymptomatic intracranial atherosclerotic stenoses on best prevention management. RESULTS: 62 patients were included [35.5% women, median age 68.3 years], 33 (53.2%) with symptomatic intracranial stenoses. Vascular risk factors (p = 0.635) and frequency of anterior circulation stenoses (66.7% vs. 55.2%; p = 0.354) did not differ between symptomatic and asymptomatic patients, but CT/MR-perfusion deficits in the territory of the stenosis (81.8% vs. 51.7%; p = 0.011) were more common in symptomatic patients. Outcome in symptomatic and asymptomatic patients at last follow-up was similar (mRS 0-1:66.7% vs. 75%;adjp = 0.937, mRS adjp-shift = 0.354, survival:100% vs. 96.4%;adjp = 0.979). However, during 59,417 patient follow-up days, symptomatic patients experienced more cerebrovascular events (ischaemic stroke or TIA) [37.5% vs. 7.1%;adjHR 7.58;adjp = 0.012], mainly in the territory of the stenosis [31.3% vs. 3.6%;adjHR 12.69;adjp = 0.019], more vascular events (i.e. ischaemic stroke/TIA/TNA and acute coronary/peripheral vascular events) [62.5% vs. 14.3%;adjHR 6.37;adjp = 0.001]) and more multiple vascular events (p-trend = 0.006; ≥ 2:37.5% vs. 10.7%;adj OR 5.37;adjp = 0.022) than asymptomatic patients. CONCLUSIONS: Despite best prevention management, one in three patients with a symptomatic intracranial stenosis suffered a cerebrovascular event, three in five a vascular event and two in five ≥ 2 vascular events. There is an unmet need for more rigorous and effective preventive strategies in patients with symptomatic intracranial stenoses.

Value of thrombus imaging in predicting the outcomes of patients with large-vessel occlusive strokes after endovascular therapy.

BACKGROUND: Acute ischemic stroke leads to serious long-term disability and high mortality, especially in patients with large-vessel occlusive strokes. Nowadays, endovascular therapy is considered as an alternative treatment for these patients. Several studies have used thrombus characteristics based on non-contrast computed tomography (NCCT) and computed tomography angiography (CTA) to predict prognosis in ischemic stroke. We conducted a systematic review to identify potential imaging predictive factors for successful recanalization and improved clinical outcome after endovascular therapy in patients with large-vessel occlusion (LVO) in anterior arterial circulation. METHODS: The PubMed databases were searched for related studies reported between September 18, 2009, and September 18, 2019. RESULTS: We selected 11 studies on revascularization and 12 studies on clinical outcome. Patients with thrombus of higher Hounsfield unit (HU), shorter length, higher clot burden score, and increased thrombus permeability may achieve higher recanalization and improved clinical outcome, but the matter is still under debate. CONCLUSION: Imaging of thrombus can be used as an aseessment tool to predict the outcomes and it needs further studies in the future.

Review on the Diagnosis and Treatment of Reversible Cerebral Vasoconstriction Syndrome in Children and Adolescents.

Reversible cerebral vasoconstriction syndrome (RCVS) is a clinical-radiologic diagnosis that affects children and adolescents, but it is much more frequently reported in adults. Clinically, patients present with severe and commonly recurrent thunderclap headaches. Typical precipitating triggers include vasoactive substances, serotonergic agents, and the postpartum period. There may be associated neurologic complications at presentation or in the weeks following, such as convexity subarachnoid hemorrhage, stroke, cerebral edema, cervical artery dissection (CeAD), and seizures. Angiographically, the cerebral arteries demonstrate segmental vasoconstriction and dilation, although imaging early in the clinical course may be normal. Work-up is performed to exclude intracranial disorders such as vasculitis, subarachnoid hemorrhage due to ruptured aneurysm, meningitis, and intracranial venous sinus thrombosis. Within 1 month of initial symptom onset, clinical symptoms such as severe headache have ceased, and within 3 months, the cerebral vasoconstriction is much improved or resolved. Management involves avoidance of precipitating triggers and potentially short-term pharmacotherapy with calcium channel blockers for patients with associated neurologic complications. Steroids are not recommended and may worsen the clinical outcome. Prognosis is excellent in the large majority of patients, and only 5% of patients experience a recurrence of RCVS.